Nyamu language: Difference between revisions

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| speakers2 =xxx
 
| speakers2 =xxx
 
| familycolor = Juru
  
| familycolor = Juru
−
| fam2 = [[Old Bosso language|Old Bosso]]
 +
| fam2 = [[Juru languages|Bossoid]]
−
| fam3 = [[Middle Bosso|Middle Bosso]]
 +
| fam3 = [[Bosso language|Bosso]]
 
| fam4 =
 
| fam4 =
 
| ancestor =
  
| ancestor =
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| glottorefname = }}
  
| glottorefname = }}
   
−
'''Nyamu''' ([ˈɲamu]) is a Juru language native to the Nyamu people of eastern Nkungu. It is one of the official languages in [[Khobeh]].
+
'''Nyamu''' (/ˈɲámú/) is a [[Juru languages|Juru language]] native to the [[Nyamu people]] of eastern [[Nkungu]], and one of the official languages of [[Khobeh]]. While majority of Nyamu speakers are of Nyamu ethnicity, most populations of Hlong, Gara, and Nganka people, among others, also speak Nyamu as a second language. Out of the Juru languages, Nyamu is most closely related to the Hlong language spoken in northern Khobeh. Being the widest spoken Juru language, it is used as a lingua franca within the eastern Nkungu area.
   
 
==History==
  
==History==
   
 
==Varieties==
  
==Varieties==
  +
  +
=== Ṣalā ===
  +
''Ṣalā'' (from ''ṣa ilā'', "high tongue"), also known as ''ṣa felila'' ("noble tongue") is the highest register of Nyamu, spoken amongst and towards nobles, religious officials, kings, and gods. This register of Nyamu is often distinguished by the use of past tense pronouns retained from Bosso, which are obsolete in standard speech, and the frequent use of lengthy honorifics and phrases. ''Ṣalā'' is also used in formal writing.
  +
  +
=== Kafue Nyamu ===
  +
Kafue Nyamu is the main urban dialect spoken in the Kafue province of [[Khobeh]]. The dialect is heavily influenced by Hlong and Gara due to the prevalence of their respective diasporas in the area.
   
 
==Current status and importance==
  
==Current status and importance==
 
==Phonology==
  
==Phonology==
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+Nyamu consonants
  +
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
  +
! rowspan="2" |Labial
  +
! rowspan="2" |Alveolar
  +
! rowspan="2" |Postalveolar
  +
! rowspan="2" | Palatal
  +
! colspan="2" |Velar
  +
|-
  +
!<small>plain</small>
  +
!<small>labial</small>
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Nasal
  +
|m
  +
|n
  +
|
  +
|ɲ
  +
|ŋ
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="5" |Plosive
  +
! rowspan="3" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|p
  +
|t
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|k
  +
|k͡p
  +
|-
  +
!<small>aspirated</small>
  +
|pʰ
  +
|tʰ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|kʰ
  +
|k͡pʰ
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|b
  +
|d
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|g
  +
|ɡ͡b
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|ᵐp
  +
|ⁿt
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|ᵑk
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|ᵐb
  +
|ⁿd
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|ᵑg
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="4" |Fricative
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|f
  +
|s
  +
|ɕ
  +
|
  +
|x
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|v
  +
|z
  +
|ʑ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|ⁿs
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|ⁿz
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="4" |Affricate
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|ts
  +
|t͡ɕ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|dz
  +
|d͡ʑ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|ⁿt͡ɕ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|ⁿd͡ʑ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Tap
  +
|
  +
|ɾ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Approximant
  +
|w
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|j
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|}
  +
  +
* In certain dialects of Nyamu (especially Kafue), tapped /ɾ/ is realized as an approximant [ɹ~l]
  +
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+Nyamu vowels
  +
!
  +
!Front
  +
!Back
  +
|-
  +
!Closed
  +
|i
  +
|u
  +
|-
  +
!Closed-mid
  +
|e
  +
|o
  +
|-
  +
!Open-mid
  +
|ɛ
  +
|ɔ
  +
|-
  +
!Open
  +
| colspan="2" |a
  +
|}
  +
Word-final vowels are deleted when followed by a vowel-initial word (e.g. ''dama ɔmɔ'' /ˈdám ɔ́mɔ́/), unless the word is a single-syllable word (e.g. ''ña ɔmɔ'' /ˈɲá ɔ́mɔ́/). Prepositions and conjunctions are exempt from this.
  +
  +
==== Tones ====
  +
Nyamu has two tones; high and low. In romanization, high tone is left unmarked while low tone is marked with a grave accent ⟨à⟩
   
 
==Morphology==
  
==Morphology==
−
===Verbs===
  
 
===Nouns===
  
===Nouns===
  +
Nyamu nouns inflect by case, number, and class. Nyamu has two noun classes - denoted as “class 1” or “C1” and “class 2” or “C2” - corresponding to different inflections. C1 inflections are also used for pronouns as well as nouns. Nyamu has six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental/comitative, and locative.
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+
  +
! rowspan="2" |
  +
! colspan="2" |class 1 /
  +
pronominal
  +
  +
<small>ex: ''ùdu'' ("fish")</small>
  +
! colspan="2" |class 2
  +
<small>ex: ''canda'' ("goat")</small>
  +
|-
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
|-
  +
!nominative
  +
|∅
  +
''ùdu''
  +
| -i
  +
''ùd'''i'''''
  +
|∅
  +
''canda''
  +
|<nowiki>-na</nowiki>
  +
  +
''canda'''na'''''
  +
|-
  +
!accusative
  +
| -a
  +
''ùd'''a'''''
  +
| -ì*
  +
''ùd'''ì'''''
  +
|<nowiki>-u</nowiki>
  +
  +
''cand'''u'''''
  +
| -ū̀*
  +
''cand'''ū̀'''''
  +
|-
  +
!genitive
  +
| -la
  +
''ùdu'''la'''''
  +
| -ru
  +
''ùdu'''ru'''''
  +
|<nowiki>-u</nowiki>
  +
  +
''cand'''u'''''
  +
| -wu
  +
''canda'''wu'''''
  +
|-
  +
!dative
  +
| colspan="2" | -u
  +
''ùd'''ū'''''
  +
| colspan="2" | -yi
  +
''canda'''yi'''''
  +
|-
  +
!instrumental/
  +
comitative
  +
| -wu
  +
''ùdu'''wu'''''
  +
| -nu
  +
''ùdu'''nu'''''
  +
| -cù*
  +
''canda'''cù'''''
  +
| -cà*
  +
''canda'''cà'''''
  +
|-
  +
!locative
  +
| -da
  +
''ùdu'''da'''''
  +
| -yi
  +
''ùdu'''yi'''''
  +
|<nowiki>-ra</nowiki>
  +
  +
''canda'''ra'''''
  +
| -li
  +
''canda'''li'''''
  +
|}
  +
Case suffixes usually assimilate in tone with the syllable preceding it or the vowel it's replacing, except in forms marked with an asterisk (*), which stay as low tones regardless
  +
  +
Many nouns (as well as other parts of speech in Nyamu) have irregular stems, e.g ''mbɔ̀lù'', which becomes ''mbɔ̀lɔ̀(m)-'' when inflected
  +
===Verbs===
  +
Nyamu verbs inflect by tense, mood, and polarity.
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+ex: ''la'' [''la(r)-''] ("to do")
  +
! rowspan="2" |
  +
! colspan="2" |positive
  +
! colspan="2" |negative
  +
|-
  +
!<small>nonpast</small>
  +
!<small>past</small>
  +
!<small>nonpast</small>
  +
!<small>past</small>
  +
|-
  +
!indicative
  +
|∅
  +
''la''
  +
| -a
  +
''lar'''a'''''
  +
| -wu
  +
''la'''wu'''''
  +
| -mɔ
  +
''la'''mɔ'''''
  +
|-
  +
!desiderative
  +
| -lu
  +
''la'''lu'''''
  +
| -ŋi
  +
''la'''ŋi'''''
  +
| -li
  +
''la'''li'''''
  +
| -la
  +
''la'''la'''''
  +
|-
  +
!conditional
  +
| -ra
  +
''la'''ra'''''
  +
| -ɔ
  +
''lar'''ɔ'''''
  +
| colspan="2" | -ri
  +
''la'''ri'''''
  +
|}
  +
Gerund is formed through affixes ''-bì'' (positive) and ''-bò'' (negative). They can be combined with singular C1 case suffixes; for example:
  +
  +
* ''màra '''jūbìlà''''' ("place '''for/of eating'''"), from verb '''''jū''''' (to eat), '''''-bì''''' gerund affix, and '''''-la''''' C1 genitive affix
  +
* ''Nṣe '''mbàbìdà''' ɔ̀kɔbata'' ("They went away '''crying'''", lit. "in crying"), from verb '''''mbà''''' (to cry), '''''-bì''''' gerund affix, and '''''-da''''' C1 locative affix
   
 
===Pronouns===
  
===Pronouns===
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+Nyamu personal pronouns
  +
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
  +
! colspan="2" |singular
  +
! colspan="2" |plural
  +
|-
  +
!nonpast
  +
!past
  +
!nonpast
  +
!past
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |first person
  +
| colspan="2" |ya
  +
|kà
  +
|kɛ
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |second person
  +
!<small>informal</small>
  +
| colspan="2" |wa
  +
| colspan="2" |cū
  +
|-
  +
!<small>formal</small>
  +
|kɔ
  +
|ku
  +
| colspan="2" |ñū
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |third person
  +
|kù
  +
|kɛ̀
  +
|nṣe
  +
|ŋa
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |indefinite
  +
|ca
  +
|cū
  +
| colspan="2" |nṣe
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |demonstrative
  +
!<small>proximal</small>
  +
|ka nsà
  +
|sī nsà
  +
|ca nsà
  +
|ce nsà
  +
|-
  +
!<small>distal</small>
  +
|ka lū̀
  +
|sī lū̀
  +
|ka lū̀
  +
|sī lū̀
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |interrogative
  +
|tà
  +
|te
  +
|ti
  +
|te
  +
|}
  +
Past tense pronouns are obsolete in standard speech, reserved for ''ṣalā.''
  +
 
==Vocabulary==
  
==Vocabulary==
   
−
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Juru languages]]
 +
[[Category:Languages]]
  +
[[Category:Juru languages]]

Latest revision as of 17:15, 27 April 2022

Nyamu
Nyamu
Pronunciation[ˈɲamu]
Native toKhobeh
EthnicityNyamu
Native speakers
xxx
xxx
Juru
xxx
Official status
Official language in
Khobeh

Nyamu (/ˈɲámú/) is a Juru language native to the Nyamu people of eastern Nkungu, and one of the official languages of Khobeh. While majority of Nyamu speakers are of Nyamu ethnicity, most populations of Hlong, Gara, and Nganka people, among others, also speak Nyamu as a second language. Out of the Juru languages, Nyamu is most closely related to the Hlong language spoken in northern Khobeh. Being the widest spoken Juru language, it is used as a lingua franca within the eastern Nkungu area.

History

Varieties

Ṣalā

Ṣalā (from ṣa ilā, "high tongue"), also known as ṣa felila ("noble tongue") is the highest register of Nyamu, spoken amongst and towards nobles, religious officials, kings, and gods. This register of Nyamu is often distinguished by the use of past tense pronouns retained from Bosso, which are obsolete in standard speech, and the frequent use of lengthy honorifics and phrases. Ṣalā is also used in formal writing.

Kafue Nyamu

Kafue Nyamu is the main urban dialect spoken in the Kafue province of Khobeh. The dialect is heavily influenced by Hlong and Gara due to the prevalence of their respective diasporas in the area.

Current status and importance

Phonology

Nyamu consonants
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar
plain labial
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Plosive normal voiceless p t k k͡p
aspirated pʰ tʰ kʰ k͡pʰ
voiced b d g ɡ͡b
prenasalized voiceless ᵐp ⁿt ᵑk
voiced ᵐb ⁿd ᵑg
Fricative normal voiceless f s ɕ x
voiced v z ʑ
prenasalized voiceless ⁿs
voiced ⁿz
Affricate normal voiceless ts t͡ɕ
voiced dz d͡ʑ
prenasalized voiceless ⁿt͡ɕ
voiced ⁿd͡ʑ
Tap ɾ
Approximant w j
  • In certain dialects of Nyamu (especially Kafue), tapped /ɾ/ is realized as an approximant [ɹ~l]
Nyamu vowels
Front Back
Closed i u
Closed-mid e o
Open-mid ɛ ɔ
Open a

Word-final vowels are deleted when followed by a vowel-initial word (e.g. dama ɔmɔ /ˈdám ɔ́mɔ́/), unless the word is a single-syllable word (e.g. ña ɔmɔ /ˈɲá ɔ́mɔ́/). Prepositions and conjunctions are exempt from this.

Tones

Nyamu has two tones; high and low. In romanization, high tone is left unmarked while low tone is marked with a grave accent ⟨à⟩

Morphology

Nouns

Nyamu nouns inflect by case, number, and class. Nyamu has two noun classes - denoted as “class 1” or “C1” and “class 2” or “C2” - corresponding to different inflections. C1 inflections are also used for pronouns as well as nouns. Nyamu has six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental/comitative, and locative.

class 1 /

pronominal

ex: ùdu ("fish")

class 2

ex: canda ("goat")

singular plural singular plural
nominative ∅

ùdu

-i

ùdi

∅

canda

-na

candana

accusative -a

ùda

-ì*

ùdì

-u

candu

-ū̀*

candū̀

genitive -la

ùdula

-ru

ùduru

-u

candu

-wu

candawu

dative -u

ùdū

-yi

candayi

instrumental/

comitative

-wu

ùduwu

-nu

ùdunu

-cù*

candacù

-cà*

candacà

locative -da

ùduda

-yi

ùduyi

-ra

candara

-li

candali

Case suffixes usually assimilate in tone with the syllable preceding it or the vowel it's replacing, except in forms marked with an asterisk (*), which stay as low tones regardless

Many nouns (as well as other parts of speech in Nyamu) have irregular stems, e.g mbɔ̀lù, which becomes mbɔ̀lɔ̀(m)- when inflected

Verbs

Nyamu verbs inflect by tense, mood, and polarity.

ex: la [la(r)-] ("to do")
positive negative
nonpast past nonpast past
indicative ∅

la

-a

lara

-wu

lawu

-mɔ

lamɔ

desiderative -lu

lalu

-ŋi

laŋi

-li

lali

-la

lala

conditional -ra

lara

-ɔ

larɔ

-ri

lari

Gerund is formed through affixes -bì (positive) and -bò (negative). They can be combined with singular C1 case suffixes; for example:

  • màra jūbìlà ("place for/of eating"), from verb jū (to eat), -bì gerund affix, and -la C1 genitive affix
  • Nṣe mbàbìdà ɔ̀kɔbata ("They went away crying", lit. "in crying"), from verb mbà (to cry), -bì gerund affix, and -da C1 locative affix

Pronouns

Nyamu personal pronouns
singular plural
nonpast past nonpast past
first person ya kà kɛ
second person informal wa cū
formal kɔ ku ñū
third person kù kɛ̀ nṣe ŋa
indefinite ca cū nṣe
demonstrative proximal ka nsà sī nsà ca nsà ce nsà
distal ka lū̀ sī lū̀ ka lū̀ sī lū̀
interrogative tà te ti te

Past tense pronouns are obsolete in standard speech, reserved for ṣalā.

Vocabulary

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