Dzuma language: Difference between revisions

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| name = Dzuma
  
| name = Dzuma
 
| nativename = Dzùmáá
  
| nativename = Dzùmáá
−
| pronunciation = [ˈd͡zùmáá]
 +
| pronunciation = [ˈd͡zùmáː]
 
| states = [[Bomakwodor]] <br> [[Afa]]
  
| states = [[Bomakwodor]] <br> [[Afa]]
 
| ethnicity = [[Dzuma people|Dzuma]]
  
| ethnicity = [[Dzuma people|Dzuma]]
Line 16: Line 16:
 
| nation = [[Bomakwodor]]
  
| nation = [[Bomakwodor]]
 
| minority =
 
| minority =
−
| agency =
+
| agency =[[Nganlokor Council of Language and Literature]] ([[Bomakwodor]])
 
| lingua =
 
| lingua =
 
| map =
 
| map =
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| map2 =
 
| map2 =
 
| mapcaption2 =
 
| mapcaption2 =
−
| glottorefname = |dia1=Akpaleh}}'''Dzuma''' (''Dzùmáá'' [ˈd͡zùmá]) is a language isolate native to the [[Dzuma people]] of southern [[Nkungu]], and the official language of Bomakwodor. The language is also spoken by Dzuma minorities in southern [[Afa]].
+
| glottorefname = |dia1=Akpaleh <br> Gaanin <br> Afa-Gaanin}}'''Dzuma''' (''Dzùmáá'' [ˈd͡zùmáː]) is a language isolate native to the [[Dzuma people]] of southern [[Nkungu]], and the official language of Bomakwodor. The language is also spoken by Dzuma minorities in southern [[Afa]].
   
 
==History==
  
==History==
   
 
==Varieties==
  
==Varieties==
  +
Dzuma has a number of local dialects spoken in certain areas of Bomakwodor or exclusive to certain Dzuma tribes:
   
  +
* '''Akpaleh''' - Primarily spoken by the Akpaleh tribe of northern Bomakwodor, but also by neighboring tribes in the area as a local dialect
−
==Current status and importance==
  
  +
* '''Gaanin''' - Local dialect of western Bomakwodor, also has a Nyamu-influenced subdialect spoken in [[Afa]] known as Afa-Gaanin
  +
* '''Bandapor''' - also known as '''Ekwa''', is a dialect exclusive to the Bandapor tribe of eastern Bomakwodor
 
==Phonology==
  
==Phonology==
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+Dzuma consonants
  +
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
  +
! rowspan="2" |Labial
  +
! rowspan="2" |Alveolar
  +
! rowspan="2" |Palatal
  +
! colspan="2" |Velar
  +
! rowspan="2" |Labiovelar
  +
|-
  +
!<small>plain</small>
  +
!<small>labial</small>
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Nasal
  +
|m
  +
|n
  +
|ɲ
  +
|ŋ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="4" |Plosive
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|p
  +
|t
  +
|c
  +
|k
  +
|kʷ
  +
|k͡p
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|b
  +
|d
  +
|ɟ
  +
|g
  +
|gʷ
  +
|ɡ͡b
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|ᵐp
  +
|ⁿt
  +
|ᶮc
  +
|ᵑk
  +
|ᵑkʷ
  +
|ᵑk͡p
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|ᵐb
  +
|ⁿd
  +
|ᶮɟ
  +
|ᵑg
  +
|ᵑgʷ
  +
|ᵑɡ͡b
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="4" |Fricative
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|f
  +
|s
  +
|ç
  +
|x
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|β
  +
|z
  +
|
  +
|ɣ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|ᶬf
  +
|ⁿs
  +
|ᶮç
  +
|ᵑx
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|ᶬv
  +
|ⁿz
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="4" |Affricate
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|t͡s
  +
|ᶮcç
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|d͡z
  +
|ᶮɟʝ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |<small>prenasalized</small>
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|ⁿt͡s
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|ⁿd͡z
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Approximant
  +
|w
  +
|l
  +
|j
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Lateral fricative
  +
!<small>voiceless</small>
  +
|
  +
|ɬ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!<small>voiced</small>
  +
|
  +
|ɮ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="3" |Tap
  +
|
  +
|ɾ
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|}
  +
In northern Dzuma varieties, notably Akpaleh, labiovelar plosives /k͡p/ and /ɡ͡b/ are realized as implosives [ɓ̥] and [ɓ].
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
  +
|+Dzuma vowels
  +
! rowspan="2" |
  +
! colspan="2" |Front
  +
! colspan="2" |Back
  +
|-
  +
!<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>nasalized</small>
  +
!<small>normal</small>
  +
!<small>nasalized</small>
  +
|-
  +
!Close
  +
|i
  +
|ĩ
  +
|u
  +
|ũ
  +
|-
  +
!Close-mid
  +
|e
  +
|
  +
|o
  +
|
  +
|-
  +
!Open-mid
  +
|ɛ
  +
|ɛ̃
  +
|ɔ
  +
|õ
  +
|-
  +
!Open
  +
|a
  +
|ã
  +
|
  +
|
  +
|}
  +
  +
=== Tones ===
  +
Dzuma has five tones: low <à>, middle <a>, high <á>, rising <àá>, and falling <áà>.
   
 
==Morphology==
  
==Morphology==
  +
Dzuma is a highly isolating language with a primarily OVS word order. Unlike its surrounding languages, there is no grammatical inflection of nouns or verbs, but there are multiple noun classes which each have their own definite articles. Many grammatical features are indicated by markers that either come before or after a word, like definite articles and tense particles. Serial verb constructions are also common in Dzuma.
−
===Nouns===
  
   
−
===Verbs===
 +
===Definite articles===
  +
Dzuma has definite articles that differentiate based on noun class and number:
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 40%; text-align:center"
  +
|+Dzuma definite articles
  +
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Class
  +
! colspan="3" |Number
  +
|-
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
!<small>none</small>
  +
|-
  +
! style="width: 10%" |C1
  +
! style="width: 26%" |<small>''people''</small>
  +
<small>(ex: bá "man")</small>
  +
|nĩ̀
  +
<small>''bá '''nĩ̀'''''</small>
  +
|nná
  +
<small>''bá '''nná'''''</small>
  +
|nnõ̀
  +
<small>''bá '''nnõ̀'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C2
  +
!<small>''animals''</small> <small>(ex: ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ "fish")</small>
  +
|rɛ́
  +
''<small>ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ '''rɛ́'''</small>''
  +
|réé
  +
''<small>ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ '''réé'''</small>''
  +
|rɔ̀
  +
''<small>ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ '''rɔ̀'''</small>''
  +
|-
  +
!C3
  +
!<small>''inanimate objects, dead beings''</small> <small>(ex: àfí "book")</small>
  +
|bí
  +
''<small>àfí '''bí'''</small>''
  +
|bé
  +
''<small>àfí '''bé'''</small>''
  +
|bí hɛ̃
  +
''<small>àfí '''bí hɛ̃'''</small>''
  +
|-
  +
!C4
  +
!<small>''places''</small> <small>(ex: bàáyá "house")</small>
  +
|nnṹ
  +
<small>''bàáyá '''nnṹ'''''</small>
  +
|nnũm
  +
<small>''bàáyá '''nnũm'''''</small>
  +
|nnṹ hɛ̃
  +
<small>''bàáyá '''nnṹ hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C5
  +
!<small>''food''</small> <small>(ex: ŋkèélé "meal")</small>
  +
|mɔ̀
  +
<small>''ŋkèélé '''mɔ̀'''''</small>
  +
|mmí
  +
<small>''ŋkèélé '''mmí'''''</small>
  +
|mɔ̀ hɛ̃
  +
<small>''ŋkèélé '''mɔ̀ hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C6
  +
!<small>''small objects, diminutive''</small> <small>(ex: káádátí "small cloth")</small>
  +
|nɛ̃̀
  +
<small>''káádátí '''nɛ̃̀'''''</small>
  +
|nnõ̀m
  +
<small>''káádátí '''nnõ̀m'''''</small>
  +
|ñé
  +
<small>''káádátí '''ñé'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C7
  +
!<small>''groups, peoples''</small> <small>(ex: àdé "council")</small>
  +
|nlɛ̀
  +
<small>''àdé '''nlɛ̀'''''</small>
  +
|nló
  +
<small>''àdé '''nló'''''</small>
  +
|nlɛ̀ hɛ̃
  +
<small>''àdé '''nlɛ̀ hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C8
  +
!<small>''celestial and spiritual entities''</small> <small>(ex: ndɛ̀kpɔ́ "sun")</small>
  +
|ní
  +
<small>''ndɛ̀kpɔ́ '''ní'''''</small>
  +
|né
  +
<small>''ndɛ̀kpɔ́ '''né'''''</small>
  +
|náà
  +
<small>''ndɛ̀kpɔ́ '''náà'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C9
  +
!<small>plants</small> <small>(ex: ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ "flower")</small>
  +
|maa
  +
<small>''ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ '''maa'''''</small>
  +
|maa rí
  +
<small>''ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ '''maa rí'''''</small>
  +
|maa hɛ̃
  +
<small>''ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ '''maa hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C10
  +
!<small>body parts</small> <small>(ex: bálù "arm")</small>
  +
|mɛ́
  +
<small>''bálù '''mɛ́'''''</small>
  +
|mmɔ
  +
<small>''bálù '''mmɔ'''''</small>
  +
|mɛ́ hɛ̃
  +
<small>''bálù '''mɛ́ hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|-
  +
!C11
  +
!<small>generic article</small> <small>(ex: ké "thing")</small>
  +
|ì / í
  +
<small>''ké '''í'''''</small>
  +
|rí
  +
<small>''ké '''rí'''''</small>
  +
|hɛ̃
  +
<small>''ké '''hɛ̃'''''</small>
  +
|}
  +
In informal speech, most nouns belonging to classes other than C1 are often paired with the C11 generic articles. The definite articles are also used as vocative particles (ex: ''Bɔyĩ́ nĩ̀!'' "Father!"), or as a topic marker (ex: ''Káákɔ̀ɔ̀ nĩ̀ ɔ́ kòò nĩ̀'' "It was Kaakor that bought it").
   
 
===Pronouns===
  
===Pronouns===
  +
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 55%; text-align:center"
  +
|+Dzuma pronouns
  +
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
  +
! colspan="2" |masculine
  +
! colspan="2" |inanimate / neutral
  +
! colspan="2" |feminine
  +
|-
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
!<small>singular</small>
  +
!<small>plural</small>
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="3" |1st person
  +
!<small>nominative</small>
  +
|mã
  +
|dza
  +
| rowspan="3" |
  +
|dza
  +
|lɛ́
  +
|dza
  +
|-
  +
!<small>accusative</small>
  +
|mi
  +
|dzõ
  +
|dzõ
  +
|lo
  +
|dzõ
  +
|-
  +
!<small>possessive</small>
  +
|mɔ́
  +
|dzi
  +
|dzi
  +
|sɛ́
  +
|dzi
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="3" |2nd person
  +
!<small>nominative</small>
  +
|ŋũ
  +
|rí
  +
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |mɛ
  +
| colspan="1" rowspan="2" |mɛ rí
  +
|fè
  +
|rí fè
  +
|-
  +
!<small>accusative</small>
  +
|ŋà
  +
|rí ŋà
  +
|fí
  +
|rí fí
  +
|-
  +
!<small>possessive</small>
  +
|ŋé
  +
|rí ŋé
  +
|mó
  +
|mó rí
  +
|ñu
  +
|rí ñu
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="5" |3rd person
  +
!<small>(subj.)</small><small>nominative</small>
  +
|nĩ̀
  +
|nɔ́
  +
|ì <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
à <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|ì nɔ́ <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
à nɔ́ <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|la
  +
|la nɔ́
  +
|-
  +
!<small>(subj.)</small><small>accusative</small>
  +
|ná
  +
|nnɛ̃
  +
|ɔ́ <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
à <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|ɔ́ <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
à <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|lɛ̀
  +
|lɛ̀ nnɛ̃
  +
|-
  +
!<small>(subj.)</small>
  +
<small>possessive</small>
  +
|nṍ
  +
|nà
  +
|ɔ́ró <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
nṍ <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|ɔ́ró <small>(inanimate)</small>
  +
nà <small>(neutral)</small>
  +
|lé
  +
|lé nà
  +
|-
  +
!<small>(nonsubj.)</small><small>nom. & acc.</small>
  +
|ɔ̀nĩ̀
  +
|ɔ̀nɔ́
  +
|ɔ̀bí
  +
|ɔ̀bí nɔ́
  +
|ɔ̀la
  +
|l'ɔ̀nɔ́
  +
|-
  +
!<small>(nonsubj.)</small>
  +
<small>possessive</small>
  +
|ɔ̀nṍ
  +
|ɔ̀nà
  +
|ɔ̀nṍ
  +
|ɔ̀nà
  +
|ɔ̀lé
  +
|ɔ̀lé nà
  +
|-
  +
! rowspan="2" |demonstrative
  +
!<small>proximal</small>
  +
| colspan="2" rowspan="5" |
  +
|(art.sg) de
  +
|(art.pl) di
  +
| colspan="2" rowspan="5" |
  +
|-
  +
!<small>distal</small>
  +
|(art.sg) yɛ
  +
|(art.pl) yi
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |interrogative
  +
|yè (art.sg)
  +
|yè (art.pl)
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |reflexive
  +
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |wó
  +
|-
  +
! colspan="2" |reciprocal
  +
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ntsí
  +
|}
  +
In casual contexts, it is usual for the pronouns ''mã'' ("I"), ''ŋũ'' ("you"), and ''nĩ̀'' ("he") to be shortened when following a vowel. In most varieties the pronouns are shortened to ''<nowiki/>'m'', ''<nowiki/>'ŋ'', and ''<nowiki/>'n'', but specifically in the Bandapor dialect the preceding vowel is nasalized and the pronouns become ''<nowiki/>'ŋ'', ''<nowiki/>'w'', and ''<nowiki/>'y''.
  +
{| class="wikitable"
  +
|+
  +
!English
  +
!Standard sentence
  +
!Shortened
  +
!Shortened (Bandapor)
  +
|-
  +
|''He gave me the food''
  +
|Ŋkèélé mɔ̀ mbé mi là kpé nĩ̀
  +
|Ŋkèélé í mbé 'm là kpé 'n
  +
|Ŋkèélé í mbɛ̃́ 'ŋ là pɛ̃́ 'y
  +
|-
  +
|''I will go to his house''
  +
|Nti nṍ kó bo mã
  +
|Nti 'n kó bo 'm
  +
|Nsĩ 'y kú bõ 'ŋ
  +
|}
  +
  +
=== Negation ===
  +
Dzuma forms negative phrases via the phrase ''kɔ [...] ndì ì'' ("it lacks that ..."; "there is no"), often shortened to ''ndì'' in colloquial contexts.
  +
  +
ex: ''Ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ là ntshɛ̃́kpɛ lɛ́'' ("She cooked fish" | <small>fish PST cook 3F.NOM</small>) → ''Kɔ ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ là ntshɛ̃́kpɛ lɛ́ ndì ì'' ("She didn't cook fish" | <small>REL fish PST cook 3F.NOM lack 3I.NOM</small>)
   
−
==Vocabulary==
 +
== Vocabulary ==
   
  +
=== Loan words and NCLL censorship ===
  +
Loan words in Dzuma are primarily from [[Bosso language|Bosso]] and [[Nyamu language|Nyamu]], as both languages have been predominant in the overall eastern Nkungu area. Although the influence of Nyamu on the Dzuma people in [[Afa]] brought about the Afa-Gaanin dialect, many Nyamu words and phrases are still used in the Dzuma varieties of [[Bomakwodor]]. However, the reign of [[Bayin Kabo]] in [[Bomakwodor]] also brought about an official censorship of words that are not Dzuma in origin in media and published works, which is overlooked by the government-sponsored [[Nganlokor Council of Language and Literature|Nganlokor Council of Language and Literature (NCLL)]]. Words and phrases with non-Dzuma origins (particularly Bosso, since words of Bhala origin tended to be overlooked) are often censored and replaced with either existing Dzuma words or newer NCLL-crafted innovations.
 
[[Category:Languages]]
  
[[Category:Languages]]
 
[[Category:Isolate languages]]
  
[[Category:Isolate languages]]

Latest revision as of 19:17, 14 December 2023

Dzuma
Dzùmáá
Pronunciation[ˈd͡zùmáː]
Native toBomakwodor
Afa
EthnicityDzuma
Native speakers
xxx
xxx
Dialects
  • Akpaleh
    Gaanin
    Afa-Gaanin
xxx
Official status
Official language in
Bomakwodor
Regulated byNganlokor Council of Language and Literature (Bomakwodor)

Dzuma (Dzùmáá [ˈd͡zùmáː]) is a language isolate native to the Dzuma people of southern Nkungu, and the official language of Bomakwodor. The language is also spoken by Dzuma minorities in southern Afa.

History

Varieties

Dzuma has a number of local dialects spoken in certain areas of Bomakwodor or exclusive to certain Dzuma tribes:

  • Akpaleh - Primarily spoken by the Akpaleh tribe of northern Bomakwodor, but also by neighboring tribes in the area as a local dialect
  • Gaanin - Local dialect of western Bomakwodor, also has a Nyamu-influenced subdialect spoken in Afa known as Afa-Gaanin
  • Bandapor - also known as Ekwa, is a dialect exclusive to the Bandapor tribe of eastern Bomakwodor

Phonology

Dzuma consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Labiovelar
plain labial
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Plosive normal voiceless p t c k kʷ k͡p
voiced b d ɟ g gʷ ɡ͡b
prenasalized voiceless ᵐp ⁿt ᶮc ᵑk ᵑkʷ ᵑk͡p
voiced ᵐb ⁿd ᶮɟ ᵑg ᵑgʷ ᵑɡ͡b
Fricative normal voiceless f s ç x
voiced β z ɣ
prenasalized voiceless ᶬf ⁿs ᶮç ᵑx
voiced ᶬv ⁿz
Affricate normal voiceless t͡s ᶮcç
voiced d͡z ᶮɟʝ
prenasalized voiceless ⁿt͡s
voiced ⁿd͡z
Approximant w l j
Lateral fricative voiceless ɬ
voiced ɮ
Tap ɾ

In northern Dzuma varieties, notably Akpaleh, labiovelar plosives /k͡p/ and /ɡ͡b/ are realized as implosives [ɓ̥] and [ɓ].

Dzuma vowels
Front Back
normal nasalized normal nasalized
Close i ĩ u ũ
Close-mid e o
Open-mid ɛ ɛ̃ ɔ õ
Open a ã

Tones

Dzuma has five tones: low <à>, middle <a>, high <á>, rising <àá>, and falling <áà>.

Morphology

Dzuma is a highly isolating language with a primarily OVS word order. Unlike its surrounding languages, there is no grammatical inflection of nouns or verbs, but there are multiple noun classes which each have their own definite articles. Many grammatical features are indicated by markers that either come before or after a word, like definite articles and tense particles. Serial verb constructions are also common in Dzuma.

Definite articles

Dzuma has definite articles that differentiate based on noun class and number:

Dzuma definite articles
Class Number
singular plural none
C1 people

(ex: bá "man")

nĩ̀

bá nĩ̀

nná

bá nná

nnõ̀

bá nnõ̀

C2 animals (ex: ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ "fish") rɛ́

ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ rɛ́

réé

ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ réé

rɔ̀

ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ rɔ̀

C3 inanimate objects, dead beings (ex: àfí "book") bí

àfí bí

bé

àfí bé

bí hɛ̃

àfí bí hɛ̃

C4 places (ex: bàáyá "house") nnṹ

bàáyá nnṹ

nnũm

bàáyá nnũm

nnṹ hɛ̃

bàáyá nnṹ hɛ̃

C5 food (ex: ŋkèélé "meal") mɔ̀

ŋkèélé mɔ̀

mmí

ŋkèélé mmí

mɔ̀ hɛ̃

ŋkèélé mɔ̀ hɛ̃

C6 small objects, diminutive (ex: káádátí "small cloth") nɛ̃̀

káádátí nɛ̃̀

nnõ̀m

káádátí nnõ̀m

ñé

káádátí ñé

C7 groups, peoples (ex: àdé "council") nlɛ̀

àdé nlɛ̀

nló

àdé nló

nlɛ̀ hɛ̃

àdé nlɛ̀ hɛ̃

C8 celestial and spiritual entities (ex: ndɛ̀kpɔ́ "sun") ní

ndɛ̀kpɔ́ ní

né

ndɛ̀kpɔ́ né

náà

ndɛ̀kpɔ́ náà

C9 plants (ex: ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ "flower") maa

ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ maa

maa rí

ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ maa rí

maa hɛ̃

ŋgwɛ́wɛ́ maa hɛ̃

C10 body parts (ex: bálù "arm") mɛ́

bálù mɛ́

mmɔ

bálù mmɔ

mɛ́ hɛ̃

bálù mɛ́ hɛ̃

C11 generic article (ex: ké "thing") ì / í

ké í

rí

ké rí

hɛ̃

ké hɛ̃

In informal speech, most nouns belonging to classes other than C1 are often paired with the C11 generic articles. The definite articles are also used as vocative particles (ex: Bɔyĩ́ nĩ̀! "Father!"), or as a topic marker (ex: Káákɔ̀ɔ̀ nĩ̀ ɔ́ kòò nĩ̀ "It was Kaakor that bought it").

Pronouns

Dzuma pronouns
masculine inanimate / neutral feminine
singular plural singular plural singular plural
1st person nominative mã dza dza lɛ́ dza
accusative mi dzõ dzõ lo dzõ
possessive mɔ́ dzi dzi sɛ́ dzi
2nd person nominative ŋũ rí mɛ mɛ rí fè rí fè
accusative ŋà rí ŋà fí rí fí
possessive ŋé rí ŋé mó mó rí ñu rí ñu
3rd person (subj.)nominative nĩ̀ nɔ́ ì (inanimate)

à (neutral)

ì nɔ́ (inanimate)

à nɔ́ (neutral)

la la nɔ́
(subj.)accusative ná nnɛ̃ ɔ́ (inanimate)

à (neutral)

ɔ́ (inanimate)

à (neutral)

lɛ̀ lɛ̀ nnɛ̃
(subj.)

possessive

nṍ nà ɔ́ró (inanimate)

nṍ (neutral)

ɔ́ró (inanimate)

nà (neutral)

lé lé nà
(nonsubj.)nom. & acc. ɔ̀nĩ̀ ɔ̀nɔ́ ɔ̀bí ɔ̀bí nɔ́ ɔ̀la l'ɔ̀nɔ́
(nonsubj.)

possessive

ɔ̀nṍ ɔ̀nà ɔ̀nṍ ɔ̀nà ɔ̀lé ɔ̀lé nà
demonstrative proximal (art.sg) de (art.pl) di
distal (art.sg) yɛ (art.pl) yi
interrogative yè (art.sg) yè (art.pl)
reflexive wó
reciprocal ntsí

In casual contexts, it is usual for the pronouns mã ("I"), ŋũ ("you"), and nĩ̀ ("he") to be shortened when following a vowel. In most varieties the pronouns are shortened to 'm, 'ŋ, and 'n, but specifically in the Bandapor dialect the preceding vowel is nasalized and the pronouns become 'ŋ, 'w, and 'y.

English Standard sentence Shortened Shortened (Bandapor)
He gave me the food Ŋkèélé mɔ̀ mbé mi là kpé nĩ̀ Ŋkèélé í mbé 'm là kpé 'n Ŋkèélé í mbɛ̃́ 'ŋ là pɛ̃́ 'y
I will go to his house Nti nṍ kó bo mã Nti 'n kó bo 'm Nsĩ 'y kú bõ 'ŋ

Negation

Dzuma forms negative phrases via the phrase kɔ [...] ndì ì ("it lacks that ..."; "there is no"), often shortened to ndì in colloquial contexts.

ex: Ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ là ntshɛ̃́kpɛ lɛ́ ("She cooked fish" | fish PST cook 3F.NOM) → Kɔ ñõ̀ŋkpõ̀ là ntshɛ̃́kpɛ lɛ́ ndì ì ("She didn't cook fish" | REL fish PST cook 3F.NOM lack 3I.NOM)

Vocabulary

Loan words and NCLL censorship

Loan words in Dzuma are primarily from Bosso and Nyamu, as both languages have been predominant in the overall eastern Nkungu area. Although the influence of Nyamu on the Dzuma people in Afa brought about the Afa-Gaanin dialect, many Nyamu words and phrases are still used in the Dzuma varieties of Bomakwodor. However, the reign of Bayin Kabo in Bomakwodor also brought about an official censorship of words that are not Dzuma in origin in media and published works, which is overlooked by the government-sponsored Nganlokor Council of Language and Literature (NCLL). Words and phrases with non-Dzuma origins (particularly Bosso, since words of Bhala origin tended to be overlooked) are often censored and replaced with either existing Dzuma words or newer NCLL-crafted innovations.

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